This paper illustrates and briefly describes a selection of the rock art at Rinconada Canyon, one of the petroglyph sites near Albuquerque, New Mexico, Northern America. A tentative attempt has been made to put some of the more significant features into a proper context.

By Maarten van Hoek

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Some Aspects of the Petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon

New Mexico

Maarten van Hoek

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Introduction

The position of the rock art site of Rinconada Canyon represents one of the best examples of huge chronological and cultural contrasts. Two landscapes are separated by a modern highway, west of which is the prehistoric landscape of Rinconada Canyon, while immediately to the east are the most recent outskirts of the town of Albuquerque (Figures 1 and 2).

Figures 1 (top) and 2. Location of Rinconada Canyon near Albuquerque, New Mexico. Maps © by Maarten van Hoek, based on OpenStreetMap-Contributors and Google Earth.

Click any illustration to see an enlargement, or open in a new window.

Since 1990 the rock art site of Rinconada Canyon is part of Petroglyph National Monument, which also includes the rock art sites of Boca Negra and Piedras Marcadas (both located north of Rinconada Canyon), as well as five small dormant volcanoes to the west. Those volcanoes played an important role in building the landscape we see today. The basalt from volcanic eruptions of  about 200.000 years ago covered the sandstones of the Santa Fe Formation. As the weaker sandstones eroded away, the basalt layers broke off at the edges, and numerous boulders tumbled down and now cover the slopes of the escarpments (Figure 3).

Figure 3. View along the North Rim at Rinconada Canyon, looking west towards the back of the canyon. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Rinconada Canyon has two escarpments of basalt, but – as far as I know – the petroglyphs only occur along the north rim of the flat-bottomed canyon (see Figures 1 and 2) up to the head of the canyon (at 1595 masl) at the west end of the V-shaped canyon, which is about 1650 m from the Visitor Centre (which is found at 1575 masl). The mouth of the canyon is about 800 m wide (from north to south). The number of petroglyphs in the whole of Petroglyph National Monument is estimated by Berrier (2021: 10) to be more than 22.000 images; Van Hoek (2020: 30) mentions 17.000+ images, and Slifer (1998: 227) 15.000. This discrepancy demonstrates the uncertainty of statistical records. My wife and I visited Rinconada Canyon in 2005 and, because of the limited time, we could only record a restricted number of petroglyphs.

The petroglyphs on the often black-patinated boulders of Rinconada Canyon were first manufactured by native Anasazi peoples (also called “Ancestral Pueblo” by Margaret Berrier [2021: Fig. 2]). However, some images could have been created in the past few hundred years by early Spanish settlers. Possible examples are the several simple Christian Crosses, some standing on a small, outlined square pedestal (Figure 4). Unfortunately, also recent markings have been recorded, including unwanted vandalism of graffiti (see Figure 4) and the several panels that show bullet-markings caused by target practice (see for instance Figure 20), both shameful activities desecrating the integrity of this Sacred Site. Some disrespectful visitors also leave their litter. We even noticed pieces of glass from a bottle smashed against one of the decorated boulders (encircled in Figure 4).

Figure 4. Left: Christian Crosses. Centre: Unwanted Graffiti. Right: Shards of glass (encircled). Note the arrow image. Rinconada Canyon, Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

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Some Aspects of the Petroglyphs

Because we saw just a fraction of the imagery at Rinconada Canyon, this study will only discuss some aspects of a selection of the petroglyphs. It proves that there was a preference for smooth rock surfaces, yet occasionally petroglyphs occur on rougher surfaces (Figure 6). The petroglyphs often offer a mixture of clearly visible images and images that have almost completely been weathered off. For instance, the panel in Figure 5 has a rather rough surface on which some markings are faintly visible; one looking like a bear paw. However, it proved not to be a bear paw, but the tail of a large bird with outspread, fully pecked wings and topped by a human head (with three dots representing the eyes and mouth), crowned by a headgear with typical triangular extensions, which is also seen on the human head of another bird petroglyph (Figure 5). Both bird images most likely represent the mythical Thunder Bird.

Figure 5. Left: Badly visible image of a Thunder Bird. Right: Another example of a Thunder Bird at Rinconada Canyon. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 6. Left: A collection of petroglyphs on the lower, smoother part of a boulder at Rinconada Canyon (including two fully pecked foot petroglyphs indicated by the yellow arrows) and many superimpositions of often faded images). Note the triangular masks. Right: The purported sun-symbol found isolated on the upper, rougher part (green arrow). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Birds are often recorded at Rinconada Canyon. Figure 7 shows two pair of confronting birds; a bird that is almost completely fully pecked (except for the head and neck), and a fully pecked bird (not being an expert at identifying animal species in Ancestral Pueblo rock art, I am reluctant to provide species-names [throughout this study]). There are more panels with images of birds (see for instance Figures 4-right, 5-right, #3 in Figure 11, and the encircled bird #1 in Figure 17B). One outlined bird petroglyph appears to be intentionally attached onto the top of a human mask (#2 in Figure 8), while on a side panel of the same boulder is another image of the Thunder Bird (#5 in Figure 8).

Figure 7. Bird petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 8. Bird-on-Head petroglyph at Rinconada Canyon (#2), as well as another Thunder Bird image (#5) and a Shield-Human (#4). Note the circular head (#1) that has intentionally been wrapped around two panels; a special way to depict human heads or masks that occurs in a very large area (details in Van Hoek 2020). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 9. The same boulder as in Figure 8 more clearly showing the Shield-Human (#4). Note the small legs and feet attached to the circular shield, and the very faint, vertically arranged thin line from the very small, fully pecked head. Also note the desecrating bullet holes. The Shield-Human is flanked by an (unfinished?), fully pecked human figure with no arms or head (#3) and an (unfinished?) bird petroglyph (#5). On the smaller boulder is a head or mask showing ears, eyes. a dented mouth, possibly a (vertical) nose, and a row of short lines as headgear or hair. Interestingly. It also has two short legs. Yet, it is – in my opinion – not a Shield-Human. This Walking-Head figure may be unique for the area, and I only know of comparable Walking- Head petroglyphs that we recorded at a few rock art sites in the Palpa Valley of coastal southern Peru (Van Hoek 2026a: 19). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

As a rule Shield-Human images only bear circular shields. Often they have one long appendage from the head (mainly straight; sometimes curved) and in most cases have two short legs with very small feet. The shield may be fully pecked (as in Figure 10-left), outlined and empty, yet often internally decorated (like #4 in Figure 9; see also Figure 10).

Figure 10. Left: A (possible) fully pecked Shield-Human. Right: Panel with three contrasting petroglyphs depicting the Shield-Human, all characterised by the thin, short legs and the long, single appendage from the head. The shield of #1 is decorated with a complex mask-motif, while #2 has an extremely small shield, while its legs are barely visible. Example #3 is the most interesting, as it seems to be composed of a fully but faintly pecked Shield-Human that has been superimposed by a (later?) Stepped Design. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 11. Stepped Designs also occur on other panels at Rinconada Canyon, like the simple square example on Panel 1A in Figure 11 and the more complex pattern in the left-hand photo (also see Van Hoek 2004: Figs 3D and F). The “smiley” on Panel 1B is deceptive as its “mouth” continues (almost invisibly) forming a complete circle. The “mouth” and facial features (eyes with a pupil, and a nose) may have been enhanced later to create the “smiley”. Panel 2 is interesting for having another example of a head or mask design that has been wrapped across two panels (see Figure 12 for a close-up picture). Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Earlier I published a paper in which I explained (with numerous examples from the SW of North America) that the practice to fold a petroglyph of a mask symmetrically across two adjacent panels, in such a specific way that each eye looks in a different direction, is highly intentional. When illuminated in a specific way, a dark and a light half was created. The “dark” eye may have been considered to look into the underworld spirit world, while the “light” eye simultaneously observed the mundane world (or vice versa?). The 3D mask may thus create a “bridge” between those two realms (more detailed information in Van Hoek 2020).

Figure 12. Left: This panel shows a complex pattern of an (unfinished?) Stepped Design topped by a small human head and a group of much fainter lines, including a serpentine line (a snake?). To its right is a partial head or mask (with hair, headgear or powerlines) that might continue on the side panel (not checked in the field). Right: This photo shows one of the masks or heads at Rinconada Canyon that has been folded across two panels, as well as an (intentional?) snake-bird combination, a possible turtle, a simple, stylised human (?) and a small pecked triangle (an arrowhead?). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 13. A different type of use of natural features in petroglyph art are the two human heads or masks, both intentionally placed at the selected spots in order to use the small natural cavities as facial features. The circular head or mask in the left-hand photo now has a diagonally arranged mouth and anthropic eyes. Note the possible flaked-off (robbed?) example to its left.  The right-hand picture shows a circular head or mask with three small, natural depressions that now serve as the mouth and the two eyes. The pecked nose is anthropic. Natural features have often been incorporated into petroglyphs created by the prehistoric peoples of the SW of North America (see Van Hoek 2020: Figs 17 and 41). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 14. Besides the conflicting landscapes (the spiritual Sacred Rock Art Site, and the expanding modern urban landscape), Rinconada Canyon also has much contrasting petroglyphs. Fine examples are two petroglyphs of a head or mask. The one in the left-hand photo is crudely executed in profile, and only the simple oval eye and small nose identify the image as a head (or mask). The right-hand picture shows a “perfectly” manufactured circular, fully frontally depicted head or mask with a large outlined nose and large, fully pecked circular eyes; the whole enclosed by a “collar” of small pecked areas, making it one of the most distinctive images at this site. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 15. Although fully frontally depicted human heads are predominant at Rinconada Canyon, a few profile heads have also been recorded; sometimes together on one boulder, like the one in Figure 15. On Side-Panel “A” is a roughly triangular profile head or mask drawn in outline and with a fully pecked, triangular appendage from the mouth area (a tongue?). On the upper surface (B) are two outlined, frontally depicted heads or masks. Below the right-hand example a (possible) bow-and arrow is faintly visible. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 16. Although several human figures at Rinconada Canyon are unarmed (the smaller one in Figure 16A even being armless), some of the anthropomorphic figures apparently carry objects, like weapons (for instance clubs, spears or arrows [see Figure 4-right]) or hold wind instruments. The larger human figure in Figure 16B definitely holds a bow-and-arrow in its left hand, and an unknown, forked object in the other hand (a plant?). The smaller figure has a (faint) X-pattern on its thorax (like the larger one in Figure 16A; note the typical headgear). Figure 16C shows one of the purported “flute-players” at Rinconada Canyon (however, see my publication commenting on the sometimes biased interpretation of such figures as flute-players in Van Hoek 2010: 161 – 164). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 17. In some instances objects (including weapons) have been drawn in isolation on a rock panel. The two objects (?) in Figure 17A might depict atlatls, but equally they may represent (unfinished [?] attempts at creating) Shield-Humans, comparable with the examples recorded in the Yampa River Drainage of NW Colorado (Cole 1990: Figs 95 and 96). Figure B shows the encircled bird and a possible club (see Figure 27B for the location). The club is comparable with the mace held by a complex Stepped Pattern Anthropomorph at Rinconada Point (Malotki and Weaver 2002: Plate 171; Van Hoek 2004: Fig. 3F). Figure 17C shows the outlined petroglyph of what seems to be an isolated bow (and a very faint arrow?) (see also Figure 15B), although the shape is similar to the outlined body and head of the anthropomorph (with only one leg) in Figure 10-right (#4). Thus, alternatively it may be an unfinished biomorphic figure. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 18. Besides simple images that are “easily” interpretable as humans, there are also quite a few petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon that are (for western-minded observers) “confusing”, Figure 18A shows a “bird-man”, apparently holding (hard to identify) objects in both hands, while a third circular element is attached with a short line to its foot. Figure 18B depicts a “deformed” anthropomorph with one bear-claw and a human-like foot. It has a uniquely shaped semi-circular head with insect-like antennae. Figure 18C is most confusing, as the outlined figure has one (fully pecked) human foot and a possible bird-claw at the lower end, and apparently two necks and heads at the upper end. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 19. Besides fully depicted anthropomorphic figures, also parts of humans (and animal) appear as petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon. The largest photo shows the image  of an outlined human foot (note the very faint, outlined image to its left) and (as an inset) three human hands (note the snake on the panel in the background). Fully pecked human footprints have also been recorded, for instance on the boulder shown in Figure 6 (yellow arrows). The two smaller photos at the left apparently show isolated bear-prints. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 20. In general human figures at Rinconada Canyon are sexless (however, see my comments on uncritically accepting “sexless” figures in rock art to be male, in: Van Hoek 2025). Only incidentally obviously male figures have been depicted, judging by the single, vertical line attached to the groin area. Possible examples are the simple, match-stick anthropomorph in Figure 12, and the complex anthropomorph in Figure 16A. Boulder “A” in Figure 20 (also desecrated by bullet holes) may feature one of the very few instances of a female anthropomorphic figure (yellow arrow). The U-shaped appendage from the groin area most likely symbolises the vulva. Is the image fertility-wise associated with the flanking snake? Also note the snake with a human head or mask and the various other petroglyphs on Boulder “A” (including the two circular heads or masks at the far left), and the two confronting birds (one inverted) on Boulder “B” (green arrow; compare with the couple in Figure 7-left). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 21. Sexless anthropomorphic figures at Rinconada Canyon. All four may be male or female. The figures themselves do not provide any clue, also because no associated gender-related objects or properties are visible. The figure at the right is in a squatting position and for that reason may just possibly be female (it also has its face defaced for an unknown reason). Note the differences in style and execution. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 22. Small, fully pecked and sexless anthropomorphic figure with the flexed arms raised, and a partially outlined figure with an unusually shaped body and short straight arms. Between the short, flexed legs may be a small phallus. There also are two fully pecked mammals and (in my opinion) a fat bird. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 23. Panel (right) with a bird, a faint snake, a lizard and a biomorph (a frog or lizard?) with an arc intentionally attached to the head. Similar lizard-like arc configurations have also been recorded at Arroyo García (two of the three examples at the site are shown at the left), a petroglyph site 44 km SSW of Rinconada Canyon. Photograph and drawings © by Maarten van Hoek; the drawings based on photographs by Kay Kamuro.

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About Site Names

Of course it is impossible to draw any solid conclusions if they can only be based upon my incomplete record of the rock art at Rinconada Canyon, often involving much weathered images and cases of superimposition. Moreover, published works dealing with New Mexico rock art (like the books by Polly Schaafsma 1980 and 1992, and by Dennis Slifer 1998) often use different site names for the whole complex at Petroglyph National Park. For instance Polly Schaafsma (1992: 98-99) uses the site name of Las Imagines to indicate the major petroglyph site near Albuquerque, which – according to her – encompasses the length of Albuquerque’s West Mesa, a basaltic escarpment, which stretches for about 27 km. However, West Mesa includes at least three major rock art sites: Piedras Marcadas, Boca Negra and – further south – La Rinconada (possibly also Rinconada Point [Malotki and Weaver 2002: 166]). Also Slifer’s book mainly uses the name of “West  Mesa” (1998: 227-231). However, observations and especially illustrations only mention “West Mesa” (see Figure 25) without specifying the exact location. Without knowing the exact location of every remark and/or illustration in those publications, it is impossible to use that information to analyse only Rinconada Canyon rock art, without running the risk to be wrong. Yet I venture to make some observations.

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Observations

First of all, it is a reality that ancient peoples were intrigued by rocks, rock formations and often also by natural rock features like cracks, holes and projections. Rocks were considered by prehistoric peoples to be imbued with supernatural power and thus considered to be sacred. Rock surfaces – and natural features on it and in it – were often considered to represent entrances into the Spirit World (involving an Upper- and Lower World) and thus as means of communication between the Ordinary World and the Spirit World via the shamans of the group (shamans are part-time religious practicers, in contrast to full-time priests).

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Masks

There are several indications also at Rinconada Canyon that rocks and natural rock features played a role in the world view of the ancient Puebloans. First of all, the numerous petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon underscore the sacred nature of the rocks, the site and the landscape. Secondly, at least two petroglyphs of 2D heads or masks at Rinconada Canyon definitely made use of the natural cavities in the rock, intentionally incorporating them as facial features. Importantly, the mask depicted in Figure 13-right has intentionally been rotated to match the two vertically arranged natural holes that represent the eyes, which are located at each side of the faintly pecked, long nose (assuming that the boulder has not been disturbed). The practice of incorporating natural rock features occasionally occurs at several other rock art sites in New Mexico (and beyond). Although in this study I often labelled those petroglyphs “heads or masks”, they most likely (all?) represent Kachina Masks. But what do those masks symbolise?

Generally speaking, the majority of the masks depicted in the rock art of New Mexico symbolise the Kachina. In the religious beliefs of the ancient Pueblo peoples Kachinas are Spirit Beings. A Kachina can represent anything in the natural world and their symbolic content is mainly visualised by their much differing masks. In general Kachinas are considered to be benevolent anthropomorphic super-naturals, primarily associated with clouds and rain (Schaafsma and Schaafsma 1974: 535; more details in Van Hoek 2020). Although the word “Kachina” literally means “life-bringer”, there are also a few Kachinas that are considered to be malevolent, like ogres or cannibals (especially those showing a menacing toothed open mouth, like Petroglyph #2 in Figure 8) that are said to prey on misbehaving children (Wright 2008: 116).

Thirdly, at least two petroglyphs of masks at Rinconada Canyon (see Figure 8 [Element #1] and Figure 12) proved to have intentionally been folded across two adjacent panels (of the possibly 11+ examples at Petroglyph National Monument). Also this practice is rather widespread across New Mexico, where at least 56 examples have been recorded (Van Hoek 2020; Appendix). It is remarkable that the Mogollon rock art site of Three Rivers in the south of New Mexico has the largest number of 3D-masks (# = 18), while Rio Grande Style rock art sites have more than 29 examples. This remarkable contrast in the distribution of the 3D-Mask raises the question of how diffusion took place (more details in Van Hoek 2020).

Regarding diffusion it is highly unlikely that each 3D-Mask developed independently at each site. More likely is the possibility that the practice to manufacture 3D-Masks was invented at a small number of sites and then diffused to other sites. It is also possible that the practice to produce 3D-Masks originated at one site and spread from there to all other sites. In view of the general diffusion from south (Mogollon) to north (Anasazi), Three Rivers (“T” in Figure 24) would then be the only suitable candidate to be the point of emergence and – as far as I know – there are no Rio Grande Style 3D-Masks at Three Rivers.

Figure 24. Map approximately showing the locations of Rinconada Canyon, Arroyo Garcia and Three Rivers (the other – numbered – sites are not mentioned in the text, but possibly all have examples of 3D-Masks; see Van Hoek 2020). Map © by Maarten van Hoek, based on the map by  OpenStreetMap-Contributors.

In contrast, some rock art sites in the Rio Grande Style (Anasazi) Rock Art Region have images that clearly show Mogollon Style properties (especially the Mogollon Style almond-shaped eyes). An example is the 2D-Mask petroglyph (topping a large squatting figure) recorded at the rock art site of Arroyo Garcia (Site “G” in Figure 24). This site thus not only is linked with the Mogollon Region, but also with Rinconada Canyon (Site “R” in Figure 24) because of the specific lizard-arc petroglyphs at both sites (see Figure 23).

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Shamans

It is generally accepted that much of the rock art in the SW of North America is shaman-related. This also goes for several petroglyphs recorded at West Mesa, thus including Rinconada Canyon, but unambiguous indications are scarce. One of the best clues is the aspect of transformation, which is evidenced by anthropomorphic figures that have both human features as well as animal properties. The bird-component could for instance be the eagle, and for that reason the two Thunder Birds with the human head and typical headgear in Figure 5 could both represent or symbolise a shaman, able to ascend into the Upper World. Similarly (but questionably) the mask (#2 in Figure 8) topped by a bird without legs (a macaw or a parrot?); which are – according to Dennis Slifer [1998: 229] – Sacred Birds) could be an indication of a spiritual flight into the Upper World. Also the petroglyphs in Figure 18A and 18C show amalgamations of birds and humans. It is a matter of interpretation whether the foot of the figure in Figure 18C is a human foot or a bear claw.

Indeed, also bear-components are rather reliable indications that we are dealing with shamans. Several anthropomorphic figures at West Mesa show bear claws (also as isolated images [see Figure 19]), but also in complete human figures, like the mystifying figure in Figure 18B that clearly features a bear claw. Another petroglyph (recorded “somewhere at West Mesa”) of a human clearly features bear claws, especially the two replacing the hands (Figure 25). According to Dennis Slifer (1998: 228-229) it is a Bear-Shaman. Slifer also explains that the Bear-Shaman played a specific role in the healing practices among Pueblo peoples. The Bear-Shaman has a distinct X-pattern on its body. In analogy, also other – not transformed – figures with an X-shaped thorax could represent shamans (see Figures 16A and 16B).

Figure 25. Petroglyphs recorded “somewhere at West Mesa”. Note the two human handprints (the spots touched by the transformed Bear-Shaman in order to enter the Spirit World?) and the concentric rings (water?). Photograph and drawing © by Dennis Slifer (1998: Fig. 247).

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Shield-Humans

At Rinconada Canyon several petroglyphs of Shield-Humans (or Shield-Bearers) have been recorded. They basically comprise of a (relatively) large circular shield (fully pecked, or outlined with or without decoration), to which legs, head and sometimes weapons have been attached. Some are very small (for instance Petroglyph #2 in Figure 10, which is far too small to have decoration on its miniature shield); others are (somewhat) larger (Figure 26) and some shields may show decoration (see Petroglyph #4 in Figure 9). Elaborately decorated and much larger examples, such as the Shield-Bearer at Comanche Gap in the Galisteo Basin further to the northeast in New Mexico (Site 6 in Figure 24) (Schaafsma 1980: Fig. 223), are unknown to me to have been reported at Rinconada Canyon. Malotki and Weaver illustrate three more profusely decorated examples (2002: Plates 134 to 136) and confirm the war-related symbolism of the Shield-Human. They even suggest that some examples may be shaman-related. Shield-Humans also appear as pictographs, like the white-painted examples at Peekaboo at Salt Creek Canyon in the Needles District of Central Utah (Van Hoek 2026b). But probably the best known Shield-Human is a multi-coloured pictograph, also in Salt Creek Canyon (Castleton 1987: Fig. 8.16), which is – according to Dennis Slifer – of Anasazi origin (2000: Plate 12).

Figure 26. Petroglyphs of two small, outlined Shield-Humans, recorded at Rinconada Canyon. Only the left-hand example has a long line from the very small head (is the other one unfinished?). Note the less patinated, outlined biomorphic (?) figure (an anthropomorph, or an insect?) apparently with a triangular head appended with short rays (a later addition?). It most likely is not associated with the Shield-Humans. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

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Stepped Patterns

Although in this study I refrain from discussing abstract patterns (like spirals and circles), there is a recurrent “abstract” design that in fact symbolises an important aspect of the worldview of many ancient cultures of North (and South!) America. It is the Stepped Pattern, also referred to by me as the “Stepped Fret Design” (Van Hoek 2004), and – revealing its symbolism – also as “Cloud Terrace” or “Rain Altar” by Dennis Slifer (2000: 120), or as “Cloud Altar” by Malotki and Weaver (2002: 159). At West Mesa – and also at Rinconada Canyon – are several panels with simple designs (see Figure 10; Element #3) and complex patterns (see Figure 11) incorporating one or more Stepped Patterns. A possibly unfinished example – topped by a human head or mask – is illustrated in Figure 12-left.

In a much detailed study (Van Hoek 2004) I argued that at least two historic peoples in the Southwest of North America (the Navajos and the Pueblos), and two prehistoric peoples (the Anasazi and the Mogollon), included Stepped Patterns in their iconographies. However, the Stepped Pattern may have had its roots in Mesoamerican cultures, or even in more ancient and more distant Andean societies. Almost every Andean society seems to have used the image of the Stepped Design. Surprisingly, the possible roots of the Andean Stepped Fret Pattern can be traced far back in time. Probably the oldest depictions of the Stepped Design occur on the ceramics of the Cupisnique Culture (1200 to 500 B.C.) on the coast of northern Peru. However, the Stepped Pattern originally might have had a different meaning.

In Andean symbolism the Stepped Pattern most likely symbolised a (sacred) mountain, which was often attached to a simple spiral that symbolised a wave, thus connecting land and ocean (remarkably, in Southwest rock art Stepped Designs are sometimes described as pyramid-like terraces (Malotki and Weaver 2002:159). Several mountains in the Andes were considered Sacred Sites, and it is striking that the five volcanoes west of Rinconada Canyon were also considered by the native people to be Sacred Spots, used for worship and ceremonies, also by early Hispanic settlers

It is beyond any doubt that the cloud terrace in the rock art of the Southwest of North America represents a powerful rain and fertility symbol (Van Hoek 2004). Rain symbolism is enhanced by the association with lightning arrows, rakes, and rainbows. And although Andean and Mesoamerican iconographies abound in Stepped Fret Designs, specific rain-elements seem to be lacking. This may point to a different symbolism. Thus – when travelling northwards – the metaphorical meaning of the Stepped Pattern probably shifted gradually from (Andean) mountain-symbolism to (Southwest) rain- and fertility symbols.

Another type of fertility symbol is the alleged Flute-Player (see Figure 16C), also known as “Kokopelli” (see Slifer and Duffield [1994], who describes and interprets many of those “Kokopelli” images), numerous images of which are widely distributed over much of the Southwest of North America (however, read my reservations to uncritically label all such figures as truly playing a wind instrument: Van Hoek 2010). Slifer (1998: Fig. 245) illustrates a possibly unique scene of two “Flute-Players” adjoining a large ceremonial male figure recorded “somewhere at West Mesa”.

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Final Conclusions

Visiting Rinconada Canyon in 2005 it was alarming to see such a big contrast in landscapes involving an ancient Sacred Landscape that immediately overlooks the modern, expanding suburbs of Albuquerque. But fortunately the area is now protected as a National Monument.

Although many petroglyphs were skilfully created, there sometimes are huge contrasts in craftmanship with which petroglyphs at Rinconada Canyon have been made, like the rough outlined head against the elaborate mask in Figure 14. Although my wife Elles and I did not see all the images at Rinconada Canyon (and thus I refrain from mentioning statistics), some aspects could be discussed. This study focussed on several aspects of the imagery: the use of natural rock features (see Figures 8, 12 and 13) and on specific images such as Stepped Patterns, Shield-Bearers, and Kachina Masks, realising that some images and patterns are seen repeatedly through a much larger area in the southwest.

Another important aspect of the imagery at Rinconada Canyon is formed by the concept of transformation, which is shaman-related. Outstanding examples are the Thunder Bird images having a human head (see Figure 5), and the petroglyphs of humans with bear properties (see Figures 18B and 25). But there also are several snake images (sometimes associated by birds); animals that are said to symbolise a bridge for shamans between the Ordinary World and the Lower World. That shamans were able to transform into snakes in order to enter the Lower World may be evidenced by the images of some snakes that are topped by a human-like head (Figure 27A; see also Figure 20). “Trophy” Heads (often shaman-related as well) seem to be absent, although one panel might depict a “Trophy” Head (Figure 27B; Element “A”).

Figure 27. A: Petroglyph of a snake with a human-like head. B: Petroglyph (“A” in Figure B2) that possibly might depict or symbolise a “Trophy” Head. Note the isolated headgear (“B” in Figure B2) also seen in the images of the Thunder Bird. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

It is obvious that West Mesa was used for rock art production by the ancient Anasazi-Pueblo societies during a long span of time, starting around 1000 A.D. and continuing into more recent times. An example of late rock art are the four or five petroglyphs of quadrupeds with thin legs and two short, small and curved horns. They probably represent sheep, said to have been introduced by the Spanish invaders (Figure 28).

Figure 28. Petroglyphs of five (?) fully pecked quadrupeds (including three [?] small animals), probably depicting sheep (introduced by Spanish invaders) and a snake. Most likely the images were made by local people; not by the invaders. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

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Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dennis Slifer, who – as ever – kindly permitted me to use his material. One of his photos and an illustration has been used in this study (Figure 25). Last, but certainly not least, I thank my wife Elles who – as usual – assisted me during our survey at Rinconada Canyon, and continued to support me at home.

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References

Berrier, M. 2021. Let’s Look at Fish: Pisciforms in the Jornada Mogollon Region of Southern New Mexico and West Texas. Bulletin of Old Pueblo Archaeology Center. Vol. 83; pp. 1 – 28. Tucson, Arizona.

Castleton, K. B. 1987. Petroglyphs and Pictographs of Utah. Volume Two: The South, Central, West and Northwest. Salt Lake City.

Cole, S. J. 1990. Legacy on Stone. Rock Art of the Colorado Plateau and the Four Corners Region. Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, USA.

Malotki, E. and D. E. Weaver, Jr. 2002. Stone Chisel and Yucca Brush. Colorado Plateau Rock Art. Kiva Publishing, Walnut, CA.

Schaafsma, P. 1980. Indian Rock Art of the Southwest. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Schaafsma, P. 1992. Rock Art in New Mexico. Museum of New Mexico Press.

Schaafsma, P. and C. Schaafsma. 1974. Evidence for the Origins of the Pueblo Katchina Cult as Suggested by Southwestern Rock Art. American Antiquity, Vol. 39-4; pp. 535 – 545.

Slifer, D. 1998. Signs of Life: Rock Art of the Upper Rio Grande. Santa Fe, N.M. Ancient City Press.

Slifer, D. 2000. Guide to Rock Art 0f the Utah Region. Sites with public access. Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Slifer, D. and J. Duffield. 1994. Kokopelli. Fluteplayer images in rock art, Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Van Hoek, M. 2004. The stepped-fret motif in American rock art: an attempt at tracing origin and meaning. The Artifact. Vol. 42; pp. 75 – 91. El Paso Archaeological Society. El Paso, Texas.

Van Hoek, M. 2010. Mogollon Rock Art and the Status of the ‘Flute Player’. In: Proceedings of the XV World Congress UISPP. Lisbon. BAR International Series. pp. 161 – 173. Archaeopress, Publishers of British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, England.

Van Hoek, M. 2020. Rock Art Images Wrapped Around the Corner – The Three Rivers 3D Masks. TRACCE– Online Rock Art Bulletin, Italy. PDF available in: Patina; Utah Rock Art Research Association (URARA). Salt Lake City, Utah.

Van Hoek, M. 2025. Reevaluating the Role of Females in the Ancient Majes Peoples of Southern Peru: a Rock Art Approach. Expression. Vol. 47; pp. 43 – 58. A PDF with a better quality regarding some illustrations is available at Academia.

Van Hoek, M. 2026a. Rock Art at El Vado, Palpa Valley – Peru. Oisterwijk, Holland. Book available as PDF only at Academia.

Van Hoek, M. 2026b. Peekaboo; a Female-Male Rock Art Site, Salt Creek Canyon, Utah, USA. In: TRACCE – Online Rock Art Bulletin, Italy. PDF available at Academia and DropBox.

Wright, B. 2008. Hopi Kachinas: a Life Force in Hopi Nation. Essays on Indigenous Art, Culture, History, and Law. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Chapter 4;  pp. 111 – 121.