This paper describes several petroglyphs recorded at a few sites in New Mexico, Northern America, that represent isolated feet, legs, hands and arms, suggesting that those body parts had been violently severed from the human body, or – in some instances – from an animal body. There is no informed knowledge available and therefore the paper will only offer a possible explanation by comparing the severed body parts with imagery found at the Slaughter House at Cerro Sechín, an important ancient temple complex very near the Pacific Coast in northern Peru, and with some petroglyphs at Palamenco, not far from Cerro Sechín.

By Maarten van Hoek

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The “Severed Limb” Feature

in the Rock Art of New Mexico

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Maarten van Hoek

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Introduction

Rock art panels all over the world often feature images (both petroglyphs and pictographs) of isolated human hands and/or feet, as well as single animal tracks. Especially the practice to create handprints is very old. The possibly earliest examples of handprints may date from the Early Aurignacian (Paleolithic), like the numerous red and black sprayed handprints in the cave at Gargas, near the River Garonne in France. Also the numerous handprints in the Cueva de las Manos in southern Argentina are very old. Less old are the white-painted handprints created by the Mogollon Culture at Hueco Tanks in the far west of Texas, North America.

Isolated hands and feet may have been depicted singly or in matching pairs (a right- and a left hand or foot), while feet and animal tracks may also occur in rows, suggesting migration or movement. Such rows of “travelling feet” have been recorded at Three Rivers (see Figure 10) and at Cooks Peak in New Mexico (Schaafsma 1980: Fig. 161), but also at other sites in the Southwest of North America (see for example Schaafsma 1980: Fig. 116).

In several cases digits (toes in feet; fingers in hands) and sometimes nails or claws (mainly in animal tracks) are part of the image. The number of digits may vary; in some cases a handprint or footprint, or even an animal track, may have more (or less) than the biological “normal” number of five digits (there are, however, real people whose hands or toes indeed feature six digits). Toes may be absent, attached to the foot, or appear as separate dots. Finally, there are many rock art images of (complete and incomplete) biomorphs intentionally showing exaggeratedly large feet (see Figure 11) or hands (see Figures 12 and 13).

Despite the general widespread global occurrence of images of isolated hands and feet, as well as uncountable biomorphic images showing hands and/or feet in rock art, there is a feature involving hands and feet that – as far as I could check – is only extremely rarely occurring. It concerns the depictions of isolated human arms or legs (with – respectively – hands or feet still attached) that seem to have been severed from an (otherwise absent) body. This feature is called the “Severed Limb” in this study. Also a number of purportedly “Severed Mammal Limbs” with tracks still attached (sometimes with nails separately indicated) have been recorded.

Indeed, the ”Severed Limb” feature is very rare in global rock art. However, a relatively yet still a remarkable “large” number of such “Severed Limbs” has been recorded in the rock art of New Mexico, North America. But despite the occurrence of “many” examples in New Mexico, the meaning or symbolism is still enigmatic. In not a single publication that I have available is there any explanation. Also, the “Severed Limb” is only very sparsely illustrated. I only know the book by Dennis Slifer, which shows illustrations of some “Severed Limbs”; mainly hands (two with six fingers: 1998: Fig. 225) and only a few legs (1998: Fig. 222), while the extensive report by Meliha Duran and Helen Crotty about Three Rivers (perhaps the most illustrative rock art site in New Mexico), only illustrates two possible “Severed Arms” (1999: 68-152W, the upper one of which has incorrectly been illustrated; see Figure 8). Triggered by the brief remarks by Duran and Crotty about “dismembered arms or legs” (1999: 24) I started to collect data in order to write this study. It will offer only a selection of the rock art images of the “Severed Limb” feature in New Mexico, focusing especially on human arms with hands attached and human legs with feet appended. Also, I will very tentatively attempt to explain those specific featured “feet-ures”.

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Properties of the “Severed Limb”

Although some hand petroglyphs in the rock art of New Mexico may look like feet (and vice versa) (Figure 1), it is possible to distinguish two major groups: petroglyphs involving hands and images involving feet. Each group in turn may comprise isolated hands or feet (images obviously not classified as “Severed Limbs” here; but they may still represent “severed” features), or (classified as [possible] “Severed Limbs”) hands and feet with a clearly longer appendage attached (a wrist, a lower arm or a complete arm, or a lower leg or a complete leg).

Figure 1. Eight more or less randomly arranged petroglyphs of hands (or feet) at Three Rivers, New Mexico. Elements #1, #2, #4 and possibly #7 may represent a hand or a foot, each with a (part of) the lower limb attached, and thus they might have been intended to depict a “Severed Limb”. My reading of the images on this panel illustrates the general problem of interpreting the relevant rock art features presented in this study. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

The “Severed Limb” is a label that I specially “invented” for this study in order to describe certain petroglyphs in New Mexico. However, in this project I use “-”, because it is completely uncertain whether the “Severed Limb” actually depicts or symbolizes an intentionally cut-off arm or leg. It may well be just an isolated arm or leg (although I find that rather unlikely). Importantly, the “Severed Limb” may be joined (whether intentionally or not) to other abstract or biomorphic images. But whether some or all the images on one panel are made by the same hand and/or at the same time, is in most cases impossible to tell.

However, the most convincing examples of the “Severed Limb” show either a long, strongly curved extension, or an appendage flexed at an almost right (or more) angle, thus clearly depicting the foot or hand plus the lower and upper limbs. Moreover, the foot that is attached to a “Severed Lower Leg” or to a complete “Severed Leg” is often depicted in “twisted perspective” (Figures 2 and 3). Also the orientation of the “Severed Limb” may vary, especially when involving legs, which may be horizontally (toes pointing upwards or downwards), diagonally or vertically arranged, while hands are usually arranged with the fingers pointing upwards, although at Three Rivers some “Severed Arms” have been arranged horizontally (Figure 4). However, in some cases the orientation of a “Severed Limb” may be unknown to me, especially when I only have close-up photos available, lacking the context. Finally, the digits depicted in hands or feet may vary as well. For instance, hands or feet with six digits or more occasionally occur, also at Three Rivers (see Figure 8), the site where – by the way – a still unexplained overkill of examples of the “Severed Limb” has been recorded.

Figure 2. “Severed Leg” with the foot in “twisted perspective”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner.

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Three Rivers

Three Rivers is a huge rock art site. The official report about Three Rivers by Meliha Duran and Helen Crotty mention a number of no less than 21.383 individual petroglyphs and markings (1999: Table 2), 315 (1.5%) of which are human feet (of the total of 1276 tracks, which also include bird tracks and several species of other mammal tracks). They do not mention hand-features in Table 2. Moreover, in their Section “Figures” of Table 2 they also mention 89 “parts”, without specifying whether these “parts” involve for instance legs, arms or hands. However, important in view of this study is that their Table 4 mentions 102 handprints, 15 human legs, 30 human arms and 32 animal legs. But those 45 apparently isolated human legs and arms are never classified as “Severed Limbs” in any publication that I have available. This study explores the possibility that at least some of those 45 limbs at Three Rivers (and a few more at other rock art sites in New Mexico) may represent or symbolize “Severed Limbs”.

Figure 3. Two “Severed Legs”. Three Rivers, NM. A: Photograph © by Ken Steiner; B: Photograph by Maarten van Hoek

Figure 4. “Severed Arm”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner.

In 2005, my wife Elles and I surveyed Three Rivers for two full days, expertly guided by Bob Dragon and Mrs. Mary Russell of the El Paso Archaeological Society, and we recorded many most interesting petroglyphs, including isolated hands, feet, animal tracks, legs with human feet or with animal paws, and human arms with hands. Yet I abstain from attempting to offer any statistics, because even when visiting such a large site numerous times, one still will easily overlook many images. Moreover, I repeat that it is sometimes difficult to tell hands and human feet apart (see Figure 1), another issue that hinders to provide a statistically correct result. In the presentations below I will mainly discuss human “Severed Limbs” (zoomorphic “Severed Limbs” will only briefly be considered).

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Hands and “Severed Arms” at Three Rivers

Three Rivers has many hand petroglyphs, comprising three general types. First we have the (mainly fully pecked) hand with digits, but no wrist attached (Element #3 in Figure 5). Then there are hand petroglyphs that have a short (straight or slightly curved) extension possibly depicting the (severed?) wrist (photo A of Figure 6).

Confusion may arise when the extension is somewhat longer (like the hands #1 and #2 in Figure 5 and photo C in Figure 6). Are in those cases the lower arms shown, or are elongated wrists involved? In cases in which the arm is clearly bent, it is almost certain it concerns a “complete” “Severed Arm” (Figure 6B-right; Figure 7; Figure 8-upper, an example with six fingers; the lower hand – also with six digits – may be attached to a complete arm as well). Some of the most convincing examples of the “Severed Arm” are shown in Figures 4, 6B, 7, 8 and 9; all combined with other (associated?) petroglyphs.

Figure 5. Hand and “Severed Arms”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner. 

Figure 6. Hand petroglyphs (with wrist?) at Three Rivers, NM. 6B-right even depicts a complete “Severed Arm”. Photographs © by Ken Steiner.

Figure 7. “Severed Arm”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 8. “Severed Arms”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 9. “Severed Arm”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner.

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Feet and “Severed Legs” at Three Rivers

Three Rivers has more foot images than hand petroglyphs. Most of those footprints are depicted in isolation (Figure 10A) or randomly arranged. Only in one (?) case there is a distinct row of seven small footprints on a boulder at Three Rivers, all pointing in the same direction (Figure 10B). In general, rows of similarly orientated footprints may indicate movement or (long distance) migration, or even a spiritual journey.

Figure 10. A: Isolated foot petroglyph. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner. B: Row of footprints at Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

It proves that the size of isolated feet may vary considerably, and only when found in combination with the body the foot can be considered to be excessively large, like with the two anthropomorphs in Figure 11 (one [“B”] unfinished with drooping feet; a sign of being dead?).

Figure 11. Human figures with large feet. Three Rivers, NM. Photographs © by Ken Steiner.

Images of anthropomorphic figures with drooping feet have also been recorded at Butler Wash, a major Basketmaker II (Early Anasazi) petroglyph site on the north bank of the San Juan River in the extreme south of Utah, for which I have suggested that possibly the drooping feet feature may be death related (Van Hoek 2023: 23 – 24). Excessively large hands also occur at Three Rivers, like in the human without legs (Figure 12), or the small anthropomorph with strange arms ending in very large hands, each with only four digits (Figure 13). But again its legs are missing. Do these petroglyphs imply that their legs have been severed?

Figure 12. Figure with large hands. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 13. Figure with large hands. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Another petroglyph at Three Rivers might also offer proof for legs indeed having been severed from the body. It concerns a simple, frontally depicted anthropomorphic figure with two arms and two legs (see Figure 23B). However the legs prove to have been depicted separated from the body (and perhaps the head is as well). Although the thin legs do not resemble the more massively drawn “Severed Legs”, it is still possible that this image illustrates the practice of intentionally (and ritually?) severing certain parts from the body. Further on I compare this simple petroglyph with a disturbing sculpture in South America.

Finally, one panel at Three Rivers shows a unique composition of two flexed legs, both mirrored and in an inverted position with feet (toes pointing upwards) that almost touch each other (Figure 14; note the arm with hand to the left; is it part of a [complete, hidden?] person?). Dennis Slifer tentatively suggests that the legs depicts a person (a shaman or a spirit-being) who is diving into the earth via the cleft between two boulders (1998: Fig. 9). But is it also possible that the “diving” legs represent or symbolize a dead person traveling to the Spirit World? If so, are images of hands, feet and “Severed Limbs” shamanic means to enter the Spirit World?

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“Severed Legs” of Mammals

Occasionally it happens that petroglyphs of human hands occur on the same panel as “Severed Mammal Legs”, like on a panel at Three Rivers (Figure 15A). Although several “Severed Mammal Legs” are found in isolation (Figure 15C), others are found combined (associated?) with other petroglyphs, like the mountain lion claw to the left of a large insect with a curled tongue (a moth?) in Figure 15B. The other “Severed Mammal Legs” (Figure 15B-inset and Figure 15C) may depict (flexed!) bear legs.

I have no information of how many “Severed Mammal Legs” have been recorded at Three Rivers, but it is almost certain that the site will have the biggest number of “Severed Mammal Legs” in New Mexico. It is also certain that the remainder of my study area only has very few examples of the “Severed Mammal Leg”.

One fine example is found at Flat Lake (somewhere in Area 2; see the map at the Appendix for the locations of some rock art sites), where Ken Steiner recorded a slender yet clearly flexed leg ending in a small, round paw surrounded by five, equally large dots (Figure 16). It may depict a feline leg, but my interpretation may be incorrect. In the remainder of New Mexico the same scarcity regarding the occurrence of human “Severed Limbs” may be noticed.

Figure 14. Two legs “diving into the earth”. Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner.

Figure 15. “Severed Animal Legs”. Three Rivers, NM. Photographs © by Ken Steiner.

Figure 16. “Severed Animal Leg”. Flat Lake, NM. Photograph © by Ken Steiner.

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“Severed Human Legs” in the Remainder of New Mexico

New Mexico can roughly be divided in a northern half where Anasazi rock art dominates, and a southern half (inclusive of a part of west Texas and northern Mexico) where Mogollon images prevail. In between is a narrow contact zone (see the map in the Appendix). Because the great majority and the most convincing examples of the “Severed Limb” are found in Mogollon Territory (actually mainly at Three Rivers), and the fact that Mogollon influenced Anasazi, it will suffice to only mention a few rock art sites in the Anasazi Region with examples of feet and hands that may be related to the “Severed Limb” concept. It concerns petroglyphs (of mainly feet) in Santa Fe River Canyon (Slifer 1998: Figs 71 [two hands, one of which may be a “Severed Limb”] and 73 [hands]); Querencia Arroyo (Slifer 1998: Fig. 118 [one large foot or a “Severed Lower Leg”]); Galisteo Creek (Slifer 1998: Plate 7 [at least one “Severed Hand”] ) and Abo Arroyo (Slifer 1998: Fig. 138 [a too? long foot]), all located in the area roughly north of or immediately south of Albuquerque.

Regarding the large foot at Querencia Arroyo, Dennis Slifer (1998: 127) argues that the elongated, giant footprint (or – my suggestion – is it a foot attached to part of the lower leg?) is a symbol seen throughout the region, and that such large footprints may represent the footsteps of the terrifying god of fire and death, Masau (also known as the “bloody headed” and “skeleton man”, identified as a “blackened giant, with feet the length of a man’s forearm”). This idea may imply that possibly at least some “Severed Legs” may also be death symbols.

Besides the main concentration of “Severed Limbs” at Three Rivers, there are a few other rock art sites in New Mexico that I know of to have some examples of “Severed Limb” petroglyphs. At least one rather poorly executed petroglyph of a human (?) leg (with three upward-pointing toes) has been photographed by Ken Steiner at the extensive rock art site of San Acacia in the contact zone between Mogollon and Anasazi (Site 5 in the map in the Appendix). Despite the relatively scanty execution it definitely is a “Severed Limb” motif, also because the leg is bent at a right angle.

Further south in Mogollon Territory there are at least eight widely scattered sites with petroglyphs depicting a “Severed Limb”, or with possibly related imagery. Several of those sites also feature petroglyphs of isolated human hands and feet and animal tracks, like a petroglyph panel at Summerford Mountain in the far south of New Mexico (Slifer 1998: Fig. 195). At Pony Hills (Area 3 in the map in the Appendix) is a boulder with the single petroglyph of a large, heavily curved arm ending in a large hand with seven long, downward pointing fingers (Figure 17A). In the same area is the rock art site of Frying Pan where at least two examples have been recorded; one depicting an animal leg; the second being a doubtful example of a human leg. I already mentioned the “Severed Leg” of possibly a feline at Flat Lake (see Figure 16).

Figure 17. A: “Severed Arm”. Pony Hills, NM. Note the seven digits. B: “Severed Leg”. San Diego Mountain, NM. Photographs © by Ken Steiner.

In Area 2 is the rock art site of San Diego Mountain where one vertically arranged human leg has been recorded (Figure 17B), as well as a possible “Severed Hand” (attached to a part of the lower arm; the wrist?). At the site of Hillsbourgh (north of the town of Hatch) Ken Steiner photographed some human and animal tracks, including a large human foot still attached to a part of the lower leg, the whole enclosed by a deep groove which ends in a row of seven cupules (Van Hoek 2026: 37). Among the many sites near Alamo Mountain (Site 4 in the map in the Appendix) at least two examples of the “Severed Limb” have been recorded by Ken Steiner. One leg (Figure 18-upper) is vertically arranged with the foot and toes pointing diagonally upwards. The other is horizontally orientated with its foot to the left and pointing downwards (Figure 18-lower). It has two lines crossing the very upper (right) part of the leg (cut marks?).

Figure 18. “Severed Legs”. Alamo Mountain, NM. Photographs © by Ken Steiner.

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Possible Explanations

Compared with – for instance – the rock art in the Majes Valley of  southern Peru – an area with probably more than 30.000 petroglyphs – yet with only a handful petroglyphs depicting isolated feet or hands, New Mexico is relatively rich in rock art images depicting human hands and feet, as well as in animal tracks. This relative abundance may have several causes, explained by the worldviews of both the Mogollon and the Anasazi (which is not documented regarding the “Severed Limb”). However, is it possible that the Mogollon manufactured isolated human feet on the rocks, being inspired by the fossil human footprints (roughly 22.000 years old) found in lacustrine sediments at White Sands; an area rather near Three Rivers that most certainly will have been explored by the Mogollon? Possibly, but that would not explain the enigmatic “Severed Limbs” at Three Rivers and at the other sites mentioned in the this study.

As far as I could check (I have more than 11.000 photographs of petroglyph panels recorded at Three Rivers and at other New Mexico rock art sites, as well as several publications with many illustrations) I could not find a single example of a “Severed Limb” the meaning of which could unambiguously be explained by associated imagery. “Severed Limbs” occur isolated or in combination with a diversity of other images, but  – in my opinion – none of those images unambiguously offers an explanatory link.

Yet there is one (possible!) association at Three Rivers involving the petroglyph of a mammal joined to a “Severed Leg” that might suggest an explanation. We did not recognize this most intriguing combination in the field because of unfavorable light on the side-panel of the boulder, which was in the shade at that time. It concerns the well-known animal having an almost similar smaller example drawn inside the body of the larger animal; a combination strongly suggesting pregnancy (Figure 19).

Figure 19. “Severed Leg” (“eaten” by a pregnant mammal?). Three Rivers, NM. See Figure 20 for a more revealing drawing, while Figure 7 shows the opposite panel of this boulder (with a “severed Arm”). Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Only when I came across a fine color photo published by Dennis Slifer (2000: Plate 9) I noticed that the larger animal was connected with a short but broad pecked band to an upside-down “Severed Leg”. Also a photo by Ken Steiner (Van Hoek 2026: 62) and a drawing by Deborah Lee Kelly (Figure 20) clearly show the “Severed Leg”. Is it possible that the apparent association symbolizes the contrast and relationship between life (pregnancy) and death? I assume that the “victim” most likely will not have survived, having its leg being cut off.

Figure 20. “Severed Leg” (touched or “eaten” by the pregnant [?] mammal?). Three Rivers, NM. Drawing © by Maarten van Hoek, based on the drawing by Deborah Lee Kelly (1992) published in a BLM Leaflet (undated).

Is it also possible that – in general – the “Severed Limb” is a symbol pointing to real local conflicts or regional wars? Could the “Severed Limb” feature be compared with the practice of taking “Trophy Heads” in conflicts? It is almost certain that several Anasazi groups have been engaged in conflicts, possibly even local wars. Conflicts are also evidenced for instance by the large and menacing Shield-Warrior Anasazi petroglyphs, especially the examples at the Comanche Gap site NE of Albuquerque (Slifer 1998: Fig. 82).

Moreover, the earlier phases of the Anasazi Culture – especially Basketmaker II – certainly produced rock art images of “Trophy Heads” (Van Hoek 2023), while also in New Mexico some Anasazi petroglyphs may depict “Trophy” Head Carriers (Van Hoek 2023: Figs 6D, 7A and B). Importantly, also some ceramics created by the Mimbres (a sub-division of the Mogollon peoples) seem to show an individual sitting on a slain person, handling his severed head – a “Trophy” Head? – that is still connected to the body by thin lines (Van Hoek 2023: Fig. 5).

Although armed figures very occasionally occur in Mogollon rock art (displaying the atlatl and – later – the bow-and-arrow), I am not aware of any conflict-scene involving two or more persons; only a few hunting scenes have been reported (mainly involving mammals pierced by arrows). Interesting in view of the conflict-theory – but not convincing – is the petroglyph at Three Rivers of a large hand that seems to hold a large spear- or arrow-head (Van Hoek 2010: Fig. 18.8). Is it a warning sign? Are (some, all?) “Severed Limbs” warning signs?

Alternatively, the (Jornada- or Desert) Mogollon, living in a dry (semi-) desert area, may have been distressed by (severe and long lasting?) droughts, which will have caused stress, perhaps resulting in (armed?) conflicts over water resources as well. When later, in times of great social and lifestyle changes, the (Jornada) Mogollon populations increased, they settled into villages (one is found very near the Three Rivers rock art site). Again it is possible that conflicts over natural resources resulted in conflicts. In both scenarios, the “Severed Limb” in the rock art of New Mexico may thus well be a stress-related (even a death-related) symbol.

There is one petroglyph at Three Rivers that just possibly might offer an alternative explanation. It concerns a fully laterally depicted biomorph with only one flexed arm ending in a human hand, and also only one leg that is bent at a sharp angle, terminating in a human foot (Figure 21). This biomorphic image is said to be phallic (Schaafsma 1980: 221; Fig. 180), but when scanning my photographs of the petroglyph (and checking the drawing by Meliha Duran and Helen Crotty [1999: 22)]) I could not detect any unambiguously depicted male organ. Only visible are the faint traces of a circle-dots motif, partially superimposed by the groin area of the biomorph. A case of an understandable misinterpretation?

Figure 21. The “Ogre” at Three Rivers, NM. Note the different density in pecking between the limbs (emphasized or added?) and the body. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Interestingly, this unique image also has an open mouth with rows of menacing teeth (like several other “scary”  faces, heads or masks at Three Rivers and other sites in New Mexico [see Van Hoek 2020]). Is it an ogre who serves as a warning for misbehaving children; a practice recorded in some Indian Cultures of the west of North America? The arm and leg of the ogre look much like the isolated legs and arms. Do the isolated “Severed Limbs” in Mogollon worldview convey a similarly intended (pars pro toto) warning (and not only for children)?

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Possible Explaining Analogies

Isolated petroglyphs of “Severed Limbs” are very rare in global rock art. To give an example, I only know of – at the most – three examples in the rock art of coastal Peru, which has intensively been surveyed and studied by me. At the rock art site of Los Morteros in the Zaña Drainage of north Peru is at least one petroglyph of an (isolated?) “Severed Arm” (Deza Rivasplata 2011: 116). It is clearly flexed at a right angle (see Figure 28A). It possibly depicts a (ritually? – violently?) and intentionally severed limb. It can be compared with one or two examples in southern Peru. For instance at the extensive rock art of San Juan de Chorunga (Chillihuay) in the Ocoña Drainage is an outlined petroglyph of a possible “Trophy” Head (if indeed a “Trophy” Head; it is of a very unusual layout) that seems to be joined by a pecked line leading to an apparently “Severed Arm” (Van Hoek 2023: Fig. 81B).

However, in order to come across imagery unambiguously depicting Severed Limbs (note: I do not use the “-” in these lines), we have to travel far from New Mexico, again to the north coast of Peru (approximately 5580 km SE of Three Rivers as the crow flies). In the Casma drainage is the well-known temple of Cerro Sechín, dating from the Andean Formative Period (about 1500 B.C.). Numerous stone blocks lining the temple have been sculptured with some triumphant warriors carrying weapons, as well as numerous disturbing images of severed body parts, mainly heads, several with blood gushing out. Interestingly, among the body parts are also sculptures of isolated Severed Limbs (Figure 22), as well as figures with their legs cut off; some without their legs, others still showing their legs (see Figure 23A).

Figure 22. Two of the numerous sculptured panels at Cerro Sechín, an important ancient temple complex very near the Pacific Coast in northern Peru, showing brutally cut-off legs and arms. Note the excessively large nails of the thumbs. The sculptures, dating from around 1500 B.C., are a form of architectural art. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

One of those “complete” sculptures at Cerro Sechín shows a victim that clearly had its legs severed from the body (Figure 23A; also note the drooping feet [indicating death!?]). It may tentatively be compared with the only image (that I know of) in the rock art of New Mexico that shows a more or less comparable configuration. It is found at Three Rivers (Figure 23B).

Figure 23. A: One of the slain victims at Cerro Sechín, northern Peru. Note the drooping feet. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek. B: Petroglyph at Three Rivers, NM. Drawing © by Maarten van Hoek, based on a drawing by Durran and Crotty (1999: vi).

All the Cerro Sechín sculptures clearly indicate that ruthless violence was once used in the area. Most likely a serious conflict or even a large-scale war once took place in this coastal desert area, and the ominous sculptures (not a form of rock art, but of architectural art) testify of gruesome violence in this area. Possibly the sculptures depict the ceremonial cutting-off – which actually took place at the temple grounds? – of heads and limbs of the captured victims.

In view of the enormous impact of the influential Sechín Culture in a large northern part of coastal Peru, it is remarkable that the Severed Limb concept has not been integrated in the local and regional rock art traditions. Having explored numerous rock art sites in coastal Peru and Chile, I am aware of only two “scenes” that more convincingly involve the Severed Limb concept. These “scenes” have both been recorded at the Formative Period rock art site of Palamenco, located in coastal Peru, about 66 km north of the Cerro Sechín temple. It definitely was not the Chavín “Culture” (which was a cult, rather) that created the rock art at Palamenco as stated by Núñez Jiménez (1986: 493), but one of the earlier Cupisnique Cultures (possibly even the older still Sechín Culture). Any claimed “Chavín” origin for certain similar images at numerous coastal rock art sites in this area is strongly contested by me (Van Hoek 2011a).

The first “scene” at Palamenco concerns the isolated image of an anthropomorph on Boulder PAL-003. It clearly is of Cupisnique (possibly even Sechín) origin. The figure is exceptional because it has only one leg, that – moreover – is awkwardly folded across its back (Figure 24; the drawing of Núñez Jiménez [1986: Fig. 1068] is incorrect [Van Hoek 2011b: 72]). Is it acceptable to suggest that the image represents a figure of which one leg has already been cut off? At the extensive rock art site of San Acacia in New Mexico is possibly a comparable petroglyph of a human with one half leg (has the lower half been cut off?), while the complete leg is awkwardly flexed. Moreover, one arm seems to be missing (see Van Hoek 2026: page 41;  upper picture).

Figure 24. Petroglyph at Palamenco, Peru. Photograph and drawing © by Maarten van Hoek.

This concept seems to be repeated at a second “scene” at Palamenco, where two adjacent boulders – PAL-072 and PAL-073 (Figure 25) – have a number of petroglyphs, also including three anthropomorphs (not bears, as claimed by Núñez Jiménez [1986: Figs 947 and 948]; at the most they are humans wearing bear masks). Although other images appear on each of the two boulders, it is the three anthropomorphs on the two boulders that compose the “scene”.

Importantly, Boulder PAL-072 shows – except for the profile head – a fully frontally depicted anthropomorph (#2 in Figures 25 and 26) that holds an object in its left hand (a Sechín-related weapon?). To its right (left for the observer of the panel) is a similar anthropomorph (#1) that seems to be uplifting a zoomorph (although they may well be unrelated). However, it seems that the figure has only one leg. Has the other leg been cut off (by anthropomorph #2?)?

This idea seems to have been repeated on adjacent Boulder PAL-073 (Figure 26) where – on Panel A – only one anthropomorph (#3) has been drawn. However, also this figure has only one leg. Moreover, also its head seems to have been severed from the body, and also its left arm (missing a hand!) seems to have been cut off. Importantly, on adjoining Panel B (Figure 27) is an isolated petroglyph of what may be – in my opinion – a severed leg (once belonging to #3?). Remarkably, the isolated leg is also flexed, thus resembling several of the “Severed Legs” in New Mexico. This Palamenco “scene” may tentatively be regarded to also offer a (death-related?) explanation for the “Severed Limbs” of New Mexico, although the reason to cut off human limbs may well have been completely different in the much distant areas and eras.

Figure 25. Boulders PAL-072 and 073 at Palamenco, Northern Peru (see also Figure 26 and 27. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 26. Boulder PAL-072 at Palamenco. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

Figure 27. Boulder PAL-073 at Palamenco. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.

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Conclusions

It is remarkable that especially in the Mogollon Region of New Mexico so “many” petroglyphs of the “Severe Limb” have been recorded. In the remainder of the Southwest of North America other examples are extremely scarce. For instance, there is an example at Potash Road, a rock art site along the Colorado River in Central Utah. It is the only one I know of. Moreover, it is uncertain whether the Potash Road example (Figure 28B) has the same meaning as the New Mexico examples (although it is possibly associated with the nearby archer [a warrior?]).

Figure 28. A: Petroglyph at Los Morteros, Zaña Drainage, northern Peru. Drawing (imperfect) © by Maarten van Hoek, based on the photo by Deza Rivasplata (2011: 116). B: Petroglyphs at Potash Road, Central Utah. The small projection sticking out at the upper end of the arm (or leg?) might represent the bone of the dismembered limb (a trophy of the warrior?). Drawing © by Maarten van Hoek, based on a photo of an author who is unknown to me.

It is also surprising that – in view of the uneven distribution in New Mexico – those features have mainly been recorded at Three Rivers, where several isolated hand-wrist combinations, “Severed Arms” and “Severed Legs” have been recorded. Therefore, regarding the “Severed Limb” motif Three Rivers is a truly exceptional site (and not only for that reason). Unfortunately an indisputably explaining graphical context seems to be absent in the rich and varied rock art imagery of the rock art of Three Rivers and of New Mexico. Therefore, we have to guess what the meaning(s) of the “Severed Limb” in New Mexico is (are). Only careful suppositions based on the available graphical information are possible.

In this study I tentatively made a few suggestion as to explain the meaning of the “Severed Limb”. One possibility is that the “Severed Limb” is a motif symbolizing death. This seems to be confirmed by the remarks by Dennis Slifer about large footprints allegedly created by Masau, the terrifying (Anasazi) god of fire and death. Also oversized drooping feet (especially when seen in vertically inverted human figures) might point to individuals being dead (see the headless [dead?] figure in Figure 11B), while Figure 23B might visualize a person cut in halves. The “pregnant” mammal in Figures 19 and 20 – linked with a “Severed Limb” – may therefore express the ever-important life-death duality that is so essential in ancient societies.

Finally, the two “diving” “Separated Limbs” in Figure 14 may symbolize a person entering the Spirit World. For that reason the possibly death-related images of the “Severed Limb” may have served to create a bridge between the mundane and supernatural realms. Moreover, certain images (like hands or possibly “Severed Limbs” as well) may have served as spots, portals rather, manufactured and/or touched by a shaman in order to enter the Spirit World.

Unfortunately, informed knowledge about the “Severed Limb” of New Mexico seems to be completely absent. Moreover, as far as I could check, there is no mention in the publications that I have available about conflicts among Mogollon groups, or armed conflicts with other groups in the area, like the later arriving Anasazi. Therefore, the true meaning of the “Severed Limb” concept will for now remain enigmatic, yet the more intriguing (like the two joined limbs [“Severed Arms”?] in Figure 29). What do they symbolize? What do “Severed Limbs” embody?

Figure 29. Joined “Severed Limbs”? Three Rivers, NM. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.

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Appendix

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Figure 30. Map of the Mogollon-Anasazi area of New Mexico, with the very approximated locations of a selection of rock art sites featuring images of “Severed Limbs” and/or related imagery. Map © by Maarten van Hoek, based on the map © by  OpenStreetMap-Contributors.

1. Three Rivers
2. Flat Lake, San Diego Mountain
3. Frying Pan and Pony Hills Area
4. Alamo Mountain Area
5. San Acacia

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Acknowledgements

First of all I would like to express my gratitude to Ken Steiner who shared with me thousands of photos of New Mexico rock art sites, together with his permission to publish them (all  photos in this study have digitally been enhanced). I am also grateful to Mrs. Mary Russell of the El Paso Archaeological Society and Bob Dragon for guiding us at Three Rivers in 2005. Last, but certainly not least, I thank my wife Elles who – as usual – assisted me during our surveys at Three Rivers (and many other sites, worldwide) and continues to support me at home.

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References

BLM Leaflet. (n.d.). Guide to Three Rivers Petroglyph Site and Picnic Area. Las Cruces Field Office; Bureau of Land Management; New Mexico.

Deza Rivasplata. J. 2011. La Infancia de la Palabra Escrita. Hallazgos e investigación de petroglifos en el alto Zaña. La Universidad Alas Peruanas. Lima.

Duran, M. S. and H. K. Crotty. 1999. Three Rivers Petroglyph Site: Results of the ASNM Rock Art Recording Field School, The Artifact, Voll. 37-2. El Paso Archaeological Society, El Paso, Texas. Special Publication No. 2, Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Human Systems Research Report No. 9301, Tularosa.

Núñez Jiménez, A. 1986. Petroglifos del Perú. Panorama mundial del arte rupestre. 2da. Ed. PNUD-UNESCO – Proyecto Regional de Patrimonio Cultural y Desarrollo, La Habana.

Schaafsma P. 1980. Indian Rock Art of the Southwest, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Slifer, D. 1998. Signs of Life. Rock art of the Upper Río Grande, Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Slifer, D. 2000. The Serpent and the Sacred Fire. Fertility Images in Southwest Rock Art. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Van Hoek, M. 2010. Mogollon Rock Art and the Status of the ‘Flute Player’. In: Proceedings of the XV World Congress UISPP. Lisbon. BAR International Series. pp. 161 – 173. Archaeopress, Publishers of British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, England. Open DropBox: Search for “PDFna-2”.

Van Hoek, M. 2011a. The Chavín Controversy – Rock Art from the Andean Formative Period. Oisterwijk, The Netherlands. Book available as PDF at DropBox (search PDF-100).

Van Hoek, M. 2011b. Petroglyphs of Peru – Following the Footsteps of Antonio Núñez Jiménez. Oisterwijk, The Netherlands. Book available as PDF at Academia.

Van Hoek, M. 2020. Rock Art Images Wrapped Around the Corner – The Three Rivers 3D Masks. In: TRACCE– Online Rock Art Bulletin, Italy. PDF also available in: Patina; Utah Rock Art Research Association (URARA). Salt Lake City, Utah.

Van Hoek. M. 2023. “Trophy” Heads in the Rock Art of North and South America”. Book available as PDF at Academia.

Van Hoek, M. 2026. Ken Steiner’s Rock Art and Landscapes of New Mexico and West Texas. Private publication. Oisterwijk, Holland. Book available as PDF at Academia.