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Detached Heads in Rock Art

January 17, 2026 Academics, Featured, Mid-America, South America No comments

This study deals with images of anthropomorphic figures in rock art and geoglyph art that clearly have been depicted with a Detached Head. It focusses on two rock art sites; Miculla in the desert of southern Peru, and La Proveedora in the NW of Mexico. Both sites feature specific anthropomorphic figures that have intentionally been drawn without the heads being attached to the body. Also geoglyphs with Detached Heads (in Peru and Chile) will be discussed. It will (very tentatively) been attempted to explain the differences between the two sites, while also the (general) problem of interpretation will be considered.

By Maarten van Hoek

Petroglyphs of Cerro Queneto – Peru

October 8, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This study – about the petroglyphs at Cerro Queneto – is part of a bigger project covering several sites in the neighbouring drainages of the Río Moche and Río Virú (northern Peru). The paper offers a review and inventory of two of the three rock art groups bordering the western fringe of the alluvial fan of the Quebrada de San Juan (part of the Virú Drainage). This is the first “complete” inventory of the two little-known rock art sites that my wife and I discovered in the area.

By Maarten van Hoek Read more

Differently Patinated Petroglyphs at Yonán Peru

August 16, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

Especially petroglyphs in arid or semi-arid regions often show different degrees of patination. This may result in clearly visible images as well as almost invisible (hidden) images. I selected the rock art site of Yonán in northern Peru to demonstrate how easy it is to overlook images on exposed rock panels.

By Maarten van Hoek

Monkey Petroglyphs in Coastal Peru

July 22, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

The rock art of the Desert Andes, the extremely dry coastal strip west of the High Andes in South America, abounds in images of all sorts of animals. Most animals are to be expected: camelids, birds, snakes and felines, for instance. However, there is one animal species that is unforeseen. It concerns the image of the monkey. This study explores the distribution if the monkey in the rock art of mainly coastal Peru, and attempts at explaining the figure.

By Maarten van Hoek

The Stepped Design in Desert Andes Rock Art

July 21, 2025 Academics, Featured, Geoglyphs, South America No comments

There are several motifs and images that have an unexpected rare occurrence in the rock art of the Desert Andes of South America. One such a motif is the Stepped Design that is ubiquitously depicted on ceramics, textiles and in other artefacts, as well as in architectural art. However, the Stepped Design is an anomaly (in several ways) in the rock art of coastal Chile and Peru. This study explores the distribution and attempts at explaining those anomalies.

By Maarten van Hoek

Revealing Locations of Rock Art Sites

May 18, 2025 Academics, Featured, Morocco, South America No comments

This paper discusses the often difficult decision whether to publish the accurate location of a rock art site, or not to disclose that information. But if a scientist reveals the exact location, the information should be correct. This paper offers a number of instances where the location of a rock art site has incorrectly been published, or where a rock art panel has incorrectly been located. I hope that this paper will be regarded to be a constructive contribution in order to encourage (in general) the publication of correct information.

By Maarten van Hoek

The Chillihuay “Lord” – Peru

March 22, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This paper discusses the possible meaning of two impressive petroglyphs at Chillihuay in the Ocoña Drainage of southern Peru. One petroglyph concerns the very large image of what is often called “The Lord”, which suggests that it is an image of an Andean God, possibly the well-known Staff God. Despite the many conflicts and wars that no doubt occurred throughout prehistoric Andes, it is in my mind certain that the two petroglyphs at Chillihuay offer no evidence for a militaristic theme in the rock art of the area, as is – in my opinion incorrectly – claimed by archaeologists Scaffidi and Tung, and later also accepted by Zborover.

By Maarten van Hoek

Puzzling Petroglyphs at Chillihuay -Peru

March 8, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

The west part of the Department of Arequipa in the south of Peru is extremely rich in rock art sites. All those sites are part of the Majes Rock Art Sphere, the rock art region where the Majes Rock Art Style dominates the area. Well-known to rock art researchers are the major sites of Mollebaya Chico, La Caldera and Quilcapampa in the Vítor Drainage, Illomas in the Manga Drainage, and – above all – Alto de Pitis and Toro Muerto in the Central ajes Valley. Less known, but equally important, is the exceptional site of Chillihuay in the Ocoña Drainage, the subject of my study.

By Maarten van Hoek

A “Lost” Petroglyph Retraced at Moro, Peru

March 8, 2025 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

A short note rectifying an error in my 2016-book about the rock art in the Nepeña Valley of northern Peru.

By Maarten van Hoek

Karahan Tepe and the Oldest “Carcancha” in the World

February 20, 2025 Academics, Asia, Featured, Neolithic No comments

Göbekli Tepe and Karahan Tepe, both located in the far south of Türkiye, are considered to represent the (so far) oldest monumental temples in the world. This article discusses one huge human statue discovered at Karahan Tepe. It is suggested by me to have a specific function within the restricted space it was found in.

By Maarten van Hoek

A Petroglyph Panel at Chillihuay, Peru.

December 14, 2024 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This study mainly focusses on the rock art imagery on one specific and special panel at the rock art site of Chillihuay in southern Peru. This panel has an exceptionally high number of much differing anthropomorphic petroglyphs that – in my opinion – have intentionally been executed at this spot, high upon the mountain. I also argue that this collection expresses the worldview of the ancient peoples of this area, which may well be related to the Sacred Mountain of the area.

By Maarten van Hoek

The Rock Art Site of Calartoco – Chile

September 19, 2024 Academics, Featured, Protection – Salvaguardia, South America No comments

Calartoco in northern Chile is a heavily disturbed rock art site, because it was crossed by several types of infrastructure. This paper offers a limited view of some of the petroglyph boulders that have been “rescued” near the original, destroyed site.

By Maarten van Hoek
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El Vagón Violated (Peru).

September 6, 2024 Academics, Featured, Geoglyphs, Mines, Protection – Salvaguardia, Rock art SOS, SOS, South America No comments

This short paper reports the unexpected destruction and violation of an important rock art site – El Vagón – in the Moche Drainage of northern Peru. In 2019 I published a full account of this site, based on several surveys by my wife and me. In 2017 there was no destruction visible, but in August 2024 I found (via Google Earth) out that the site had been destroyed by heavy machinery. This short paper discusses the damage, often referring to my earlier publication. It is sad that the site survived from the Formative Period (2000-500 B.C.) up to at least 2022, and was then recklessly and shamefully violated and destroyed in a few days, apparently without any warning or any official archaeological survey. Permission should never have been granted!

By Maarten van Hoek

The Cupules of Cerro La Cal, Peru

July 24, 2024 Academics, Cup marks - coppelle, Featured, South America No comments

This short study presents an update of the petroglyphs (focussing on cupules) recorded by my wife Elles and me at the rock art site of Cerro La Cal, Lambayeque, northern Peru. Also a selection of rock art sites featuring cupules in the Desert Andes is included.

By Maarten van Hoek
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Petroglyphs at Cerro Mal Paso, Peru

June 7, 2024 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This paper describes the several rock art panels recorded by us after 2012 at the rock art site of Cerro Mal Paso in the Chancay Valley of northern Peru. In addition also some other petroglyph- panels at the site have been recorded by other explorers, as well as a few petroglyph panels recorded by others beyond Cerro Mal Paso. The focus of the paper is on a rather enigmatic image, a possible anthropomorphic-zoomorphic figure (lizard or bird?), while this study also offers a tentative explanation of the anthropomorphic-zoomorphic figure.

By Maarten van Hoek

“Trophy” Head # 42 at Toro Muerto?

May 15, 2024 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This short note discusses a possible addition of a “Trophy” Head petroglyph at Toro Muerto, southern Peru. Toro Muerto has the biggest concentration of “Trophy” Head petroglyphs in the Desert Andes. This paper suggests that another example can be added to the grand total, but simultaneously proposes that this new (possible) find – and many other panels at Toro Muerto – should be photographed in optimal circumstances to ascertain its identification.

By Maarten van Hoek

New “Snake” Petroglyphs – Vítor Valley, Peru

May 15, 2024 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This short paper discusses two new finds of specific biomorphic petroglyphs in the Vítor Valley of Southern Peru and its distribution within the Majes Rock Art Style (MRAS). It proves that this type of biomorphic image is overrepresented in the Vítor Drainage.

By Maarten van Hoek

A New “Venus” Cross Petroglyph

May 15, 2024 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This short paper discusses a new find of another petroglyph depicting the “Venus-Cross” in the Vítor Valley of Southern Peru. The paper also reviews its distribution within the Majes Rock Art Style (MRAS) and within a much larger area (the Desert Andes). It proves that – for still some unknown reason – the “Venus-Cross” is overrepresented in the Vítor Drainage.

By Maarten van Hoek

Commenting on Rozwadowski and Wołoszyn

May 11, 2024 Academics, Featured, Interpretation and semiotics, South America No comments

This paper reviews the publication by academic archaeologists, Andrzej Rozwadowski and Janusz Z. Wołoszyn, in which they suggest that zigzag petroglyphs at Toro Muerto in the Majes Valley of southern Peru – constituting the most important rock art site in the Desert Andes of South America – could be representations of songs. In my paper I question a number of their suggestions and statements by trying to put the whole issue in a more appropriate context. I cannot refute their theory, but my objections makes it unlikely (though not impossible) that Toro Muerto zigzags indeed represent songs.

By Maarten van Hoek

Animated Abstracts in Majes Rock Art

April 23, 2024 Academics, Featured, Interpretation and semiotics, South America No comments

This paper is one of a series of studies that investigates the rock art of the Majes Rock Art Style (MRAS) in southern Peru. This time I focus on petroglyphs of long, pecked stripes that have been animated by the prehistoric Majes People. I now argue that those Animated Stripes and many other typical MRAS images (discussed earlier by me; see my bibliography), including another icon (the “Majes Spitter”, which is the subject of my next study) created the Toro Muerto Anomaly, which – unfortunately – is either unknown or neglected by archaeologists busy in the Majes Valley.

By Maarten van Hoek

Imaoun – Morocco: the Venus Cross

April 2, 2024 Academics, Featured, Megalithic art - arte megalitica, Morocco No comments

Imaoun-1 is one of the most important rock art sites in southern Morocco. In this study I briefly describe the array of petroglyphs at this site, comprising cupules, abstract motifs and patterns and biomorphic images. Imaoun-1 is also special because of its overrepresentation of abstract imagery. In this study I focus on one specific abstract petroglyph (said to have megalithic connotations), and – in more detail – on the Venus Cross, a globally widespread motif that is also overrepresented in this small part of Morocco. Its possible origin and journey across the prehistoric landscapes are also discussed.

By Maarten van Hoek.

Petroglyphs of Tourirt-n-Tislatine – Morocco

February 5, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco No comments

This small petroglyph site in southern Morocco has – despite its limited number of decorated panel – a rather large variety of images. There are petroglyphs of quadrupeds (felines, bovines, antelopes, an elephant, perhaps a goat), some birds (probably ostriches) and one simple, yet interesting petroglyph of an outlined anthropomorphic figure. The site is very easily accessible and thus suffers from vandalism.

By Maarten van Hoek

Petroglyphs of Imaoun-3A – Southern Morocco

January 12, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco No comments

This paper describes a modest petroglyph site just south of the Anti-Atlas of southern Morocco. It is found on a rocky hill, called Jorf Naga, where at least three other rock art sites have been recorded. All four sites play an important role in the rock art traditions of the most important rock art complex of Imaoun and the drainage of Wadi Akka, which – in ancient times – was definitely used as an important north-south migratory route through the Anti-Atlas to the contact zone with the Sahara.

By Maarten van Hoek

Petroglyphs of Tizounine. Southern Morocco

January 3, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco No comments

This petroglyph site – located in the far south of Morocco – has only a small number of decorated panels. Yet there is a surprising variety in imagery, which ranges from biomorphic figures (mainly quadrupeds of the Tazina Style) and abstract motifs, one of which may well depict an (unplayable) game-board. A few (abstract?) motifs are enigmatic.

By Maarten van Hoek

I petroglifi della Via della seta: la gola di Sarmishsay

December 21, 2023 Academics, Asia, Featured, Zoomorphic No comments

Il complesso di Sarmishsay (uzbeko: Sarmishsoy), con oltre 10mila incisioni, rappresenta il sito più rilevante dell’Uzbekistan per l’arte rupestre, testimoniando la presenza di antiche civiltà umane. Per la sua importanza, il sito è stato inserito nella lista propositiva del patrimonio mondiale dell’UNESCO. I petroglifi di Sarmishsay, scoperti e studiati nel 1958 da Kh.I. Mukhamedov, hanno attirato l’attenzione di archeologi e storici di tutto il mondo.

by Oriana BOZZARELLI – Università di Torino Read more

The Petroglyphs of Jebel Youmkat, Morocco

December 20, 2023 Academics, Featured, Morocco No comments

This paper describes the petroglyphs that my wife and I recorded at the rock art site of Jebel Youmkat in Wadi Tamanart in 2019. As far as I could check, this site has not been published anywhere. The petroglyphs mainly concern images of quadrupeds and some ostriches.

By Maarten van Hoek

The Archers of Oum el Aleg, Morocco

December 2, 2023 Academics, Featured, Morocco No comments

This paper deals with the petroglyph site of Oum el Aleg near Akka in the far south of Morocco. The main subject of the paper is that I argue that there possibly are three images of archers, two of which possibly engaged in a hunting scene. The paper is accompanied by a video about Oum el Aleg, which can be viewed at YouTube.

By Maarten van Hoek

A Study of Boulder AP3-065 – Peru

August 12, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America One comment

This paper presents the fifth case in my series of articles in which I discuss a selection of petroglyph boulders at Alto de Pitis, in the Majes Valley of southern Peru. It especially discusses a controversial petroglyph of an anthropomorph that has been interpreted in two most different ways. One rendering of the figure is questioned in this study (updated September 2023).

By Maarten van Hoek

Majes Rock Art – evaluating a thesis

August 7, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America No comments

This paper analyses the 2018-thesis by Prof. Scaffidi. It concerns a revision (dated September 2023).

by Maarten van Hoek

Commenting on Rozwadowski and Wołoszyn

May 11, 2024 Academics, Featured, Interpretation and semiotics, South America INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Animated Abstracts in Majes Rock Art

April 23, 2024 Academics, Featured, Interpretation and semiotics, South America INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Imaoun – Morocco: the Venus Cross

April 2, 2024 Academics, Featured, Megalithic art - arte megalitica, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek.

Petroglyphs of Tourirt-n-Tislatine – Morocco

February 5, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Petroglyphs of Imaoun-3A – Southern Morocco

January 12, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Petroglyphs of Tizounine. Southern Morocco

January 3, 2024 Academics, Featured, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

I petroglifi della Via della seta: la gola di Sarmishsay

December 21, 2023 Academics, Asia, Featured, Zoomorphic INDEX

by Oriana BOZZARELLI – Università di Torino Read more

The Petroglyphs of Jebel Youmkat, Morocco

December 20, 2023 Academics, Featured, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

The Archers of Oum el Aleg, Morocco

December 2, 2023 Academics, Featured, Morocco INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Intelligenza artificiale al banco di prova dell’arte rupestre

November 20, 2023 Uncategorized INDEX

L’applicazione dell’intelligenza artificiale all’arte rupestre è un ambito emergente dell’archeologia digitale, oltre che delle digital humanities in senso ampio, e sta aprendo nuove prospettive nella ricerca, comprensione, conservazione e valorizzazione di questo patrimonio culturale. L’arte rupestre, per le sue caratteristiche peculiari, rappresenta un eccellente terreno di prova non solo per l’addestramento/sperimentazione ma anche per la valutazione della performance dell’intelligenza artificiale applicata al patrimonio culturale.

by Oriana BOZZARELLI – Università di Torino Read more

A Study of Boulder AP3-065 – Peru

August 12, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America INDEX

By Maarten van Hoek

Majes Rock Art – evaluating a thesis

August 7, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America INDEX

This paper analyses the 2018-thesis by Prof. Scaffidi. It concerns a revision (dated September 2023).

by Maarten van Hoek

The “Camelines” of Toro Muerto

August 2, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America INDEX

In general, it proves to be rather awkward (or even impossible) to establish the exact species of biomorphic images depicted at Toro Muerto (Peru), and thus this is even more problematic for conflations of two or more animals. In this study I argue that at Toro Muerto several petroglyphs of quadrupeds may well depict a specific conflation. With a number of illustrations I will demonstrate that this hypothesis is not far-fetched at all.

By Maarten van Hoek

The Case of Boulder AP3-098, Alto de Pitis

July 15, 2023 Academics, Featured, South America INDEX

This paper – the fourth in a series about Alto de Pitis, all published in TRACCE – discusses some specific petroglyphs on Boulder AP3-098, focusing on the possible therianthrope on one of its panels.

By Maarten van Hoek

Personaggi dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica: Emanuele Süss

January 31, 2023 Featured, research history, Valcamonica - Valtellina INDEX

Emanuele Süss (1909-1996) è stata una figura molto importante per le ricerche e la diffusione dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica nei primi anni ’50 del ’900. Dopo averle catalogate, disegnò la pianta con la numerazione delle rocce del Parco nazionale nell’area di Naquane. Fu autore del volume “Le Incisioni rupestri della Valcamonica” che ebbe una grande fortuna e che andò incontro a numerose ristampe. (PDF available)

by Angelo Eugenio FOSSATI – Le Orme dell’Uomo Read more

Personaggi dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica: Giovanni Marro

January 31, 2023 Featured, research history, Valcamonica - Valtellina INDEX

Giovanni Marro (1875-1952) è senza dubbio la figura più discussa tra tutti i ricercatori dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica nella prima metà del ’900. E’ importante sottolineare il ruolo dello studioso nell’ambito delle scoperte. Egli percorreva i boschi a piedi inoltrandosi nei castagneti dov’erano presenti le rocce incise – infatti è ricordato anche come “il grande camminatore” – e scopriva le figure rupestri rimuovendo l’humus, spesso con l’aiuto di persone del posto, tra le quali il Marro utilizzava soprattutto Giuseppe Amaracco di Capo di Ponte. (PDF available)

by Angelo Eugenio FOSSATI – Le Orme dell’Uomo Read more

Personaggi dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica: Giovanni Marini

January 31, 2023 Featured, research history, Valcamonica - Valtellina INDEX

Giovanni Marini era davvero instancabile e appena poteva conduceva in visita gruppi italiani – anche scuole – e stranieri interessati a vedere il Parco di Luine con le incisioni rupestri più antiche della Valle. Una rara fotografia scattata nell’ottobre del 1990 lo ritrae seduto sulla roccia n. 73 ed intento a illustrare alcune figure di mani, rappresentazioni tra le più rare del Parco. (PDF available).

by Angelo Eugenio FOSSATI – Le Orme dell’Uomo Read more

Personaggi dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica: Battista Maffessoli

January 31, 2023 Featured, research history, Valcamonica - Valtellina INDEX

Il mondo accademico italiano e straniero deve molto a Battista Maffessoli, artigiano, artista eclettico (pittore e scultore) dalla complessa personalità, guida alle incisioni rupestri per gruppi – sono nell’ordine di migliaia le persone che negli anni ha accompagnato a visitare le incisioni rupestri – e singoli, tra cui vanno annoverati praticamente tutti gli studiosi oggi attivi nelle ricerche dell’arte rupestre della Valcamonica. (PDF available).

by Angelo Eugenio FOSSATI – Le Orme dell’Uomo Read more